| dc.description.abstract | resource endowments, exchange entitlement, existing and alternative livelihoods
options, focusing on both informal and formal institutions including the Government
policies.
Many studies argue that production deficit is the major reason behind the situation of
food insecurity among the people. These discussions assume that food security depends
upon arable land and argue that the center of attention needs to be given on increase in
food production. In contrast, other debates state that there is sufficient food available to
feed the entire global population; supply constraint is the major cause of its deficiency.
These opinions focus on promotion of efficient food supply mechanism through
international trade, aid and public distributions, including improved governance, which
secures that available food reaches to the needy people. With the groundbreaking work of
Amartya Sen (1981), the issues of entitlement and access to food surpass the ongoing
above-mentioned debates. His works argue that lack of people’s capacity to demand food
is major cause of its deficit among some section of them.
This research uses and builds on Sen’s entitlement theory. His theory is relevant
to analyze causes and factors of food shortage among marginal groups living in Nepal.
The theory focuses on people’s private ownership to resource endowments to produce
food and their market based exchange entitlement to acquire food they need. However, it
gives limited attention on broader aspects of people’s resource endowments as well as the
role of non-market institutions to gain the entitlement. This research looks at beyond the
debates and discussions of entitlement framework of Sen to generate complete picture of
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access to food. In this regard, this research has accommodated the issues of poverty,
livelihoods and capability in Sen’s framework. In addition to this, the research has
incorporated the subjects of exclusions and inclusions adequately to understand food
security in the context of society like Nepal. It discusses how these issues affect food
production and exchange entitlement of different categories of people in resource scarce
areas.
This study is descriptive as well as analytical and uses mixed methods research
strategies. In quantitative method, it uses household survey (structured questionnaire). In
qualitative method, it uses Key Informant Interview (KII) and Focus/ Group Discussions
(F/GD) at a single point in time. For household survey, the study applies multistage
sampling methods to locate sampling units. Survey of 370 households was done using
structured questionnaire. The sample represents 52.7 percent Upper Caste, 16.7 percent
Janjati and 30.5 percent Dalits households. Woman represents 43.2 percent of the total
respondent. To generate qualitative information, 32 field-level Key Informant Interviews
(KII) were conducted. In addition, the study carried out 21 Focus/Group Discussions
(F/GD) using range of participatory tools such as resource mapping, ranking, market
analysis, trend analysis, etc. To analyse the information, it used SPSS software for
quantitative data while employed participatory tools for qualitative information. The
research instruments such as survey questionnaire and checklists were tested in the field
before its actual use to ensure its validity and reliability. In the study, special attempt has
been made to capture the issues of gender and social inclusion perspective of different
categories of people.
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This study finds that almost all of the households in the study sites face food
production deficit because of limited land, nominal use of agricultural inputs, inadequate
harnessing of livestock and forest based food. These households depend on market, WFP
food aid and Nepal Food Corporation (NFC) to fulfill their deficit food need. In this
regard, market has been playing crucial role in recent time due to connection of hilly and
mountain regions by the road networks and establishment of small markets along the
road. However, the food security objective of the poor and marginalized households is
still in vulnerable situation due to lack of targeting methods of these distributing
agencies.
The state and pattern of food insecurity among different social group is diverse.
Majority of Dalits are unable to produce sufficient food they need because their access to
land and improved agricultural input is very limited. Most of them depend on market for
deficit food, as their access to public and aid food is limited. Seasonal migration to India
is
major income source of them. They also face caste-based discrimination in
consumption and utilization of food. Janjati have good access to land but have limited
access to improved agricultural inputs. The farming practices of them mostly focus on
cereal but have limited attentions on cash crop. Agriculture is the major source of income
for them. Within households, women’s entitlement to food production is limited because
of their lack of ownership of land and practices of gender-based discrimination and
structural violences against them. Gender-based discrimination in food distribution
during menstruation is still practice among Upper Caste households while consumption
of leftover still exists among Dalits. Women’s access to ‘cash for work’ program run by
NFC and WFP is also limited.
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Many factors and trends influence the food entitlement ability of different
categories of people living in the region. Construction of road and establishment of
market is the key factor that provides opportunities to the people for commercialization
of farming, diversification of income strategies, availability of cheap food and market
based consumerism. These infrastructures have also been breaking up traditional social
structure such as relations of patron and clients between Upper Caste and Dalits. Now the
Dalits purchase food in the market using remittances instead of going to work for patron.
Seasonal migration to India continues as another important trend providing alternative
coping strategy to the poor in the region. It is a major source of income among them.
However, it has created many negative impacts in the regions including the problem
HIV/AIDS. In recent days, trend of going to India among rich Upper Caste households
from the region has been decreasing. Similarly, the social exclusion and discriminatory
institutions are other trends, which are still functioning in the sites, which make Dalits
vulnerable to food insecurity. In this regard, historical injustice with Dalits seems a major
issue, which created barriers to get land and education for them. In addition to these, the
ten years of Maoist conflicts is also important factor felt by the people living in the study
sites. This conflict has led to both positive and negative impacts; some of the
positiveimpacts seen in the study sites are related to decline in food-based discrimination
practices and untouchability, while negative impacts seen incude growing fallowing of
land due to forced migration of people and decline in alternative livelihood activities
leading to food shortages. It has exerted positive impacts such as supported to end food
based discrimination as well as negative impacts such as causing shortage of labor.
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The review of the Government policies of Nepal shows that the objectives and
targets of the policies have not achieved so far. The Government policies of Nepal have
been continuously focusing on improvements in food production from its first five-year
plan (1956/57-1960/61). Most important reason behind the situations is that these policies
are directed towards land owning farmers and have given little attention to marginal
cultivators. Regarding production entitlement, there are many policies dealing with land
ownership and use of improved agricultural inputs. However, these policies are not
helpful for small holders and their access to improved agricultural inputs is very limited.
These policies have also not focussed on the production of local crops such as Millet, and
Buckwheat. Regarding exchange entitlement, very limited households derive their income
through off-farm strategies within the country. In spite of some potentialities, the access
of the local people on non-farm based employment is negligible. The Government has no
specific policies focusing on the marginal youth living in the sites. Regarding
consumption entitlement, awareness about food safety is very limited. There is no
mechanismto implement farm and animal-based safety rules in the region so far.
However, awareness about consumption of nutritious food has increased in recent days
due to effective health campaign of health posts.
In recent years, some alternative practices are emerging in the region that may
improve the food entitlement of the marginal communities. The landless and small
cultivators are using public land, contract farming and available forestland to produce
food crops. Options of production for them include high value cash crops and organic
farming. Similarly, new non-farm income opportunities are emerging in the sites. In this
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regard, the possibilities of wage labor in construction sectors, migration to gulf and
Malaysian countries, forest-product based entrepreneurships and tourism are becoming
important. In recent days, people are also aware about the alternative consumption
pattern. Instead of rice, some people have followed the alternative pattern of consumption
of locally produced potato, maize and barely.
The study recommends that there is need of public support to the vulnerable communities
even in food surplus areas. These mechanisms may be the provision of voucher, cheap
shop, food cards or others. Similarly, access of the marginal people to land seems crucial
because land still matters for food entitlement of the people living in resource scarce
areas. Simultaneously, it is important to upgrade the labor skill of youth. Focus needs to
be given to launch skill development programme based on the demands at Indian and
abroad labor market. In addition, the Government policies dealing with food security
need to be specific and strategic focusing on activities that address the issues of food
insecure groups such as marginal cultivators of all caste groups, particularly Dalits and
women. In these contexts, policies directed towards the production of high value cash
crops may be important to increase the purchasing power of local people. More
importantly, the alternative practices emerging in the region need to be institutionalized
through appropriate policies, institutions and agricultural inputs. | en_US |
